Gender, religion, and sociospatial (im)mobilities: Toward an intersectional framework for muslim female solo travel

Afsaneh Rostami; Alexander Trupp

doi:10.3112/erdkunde.2025.02.04

Authors

Afsaneh Rostami https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1185-6207
Alexander Trupp https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1093-2824

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2025.02.04

Keywords:

intersectionality, Muslim female solo travelers, nationality, education, employment

Abstract

This research proposes an intersectional framework for examining Muslim women’s solo travel. Drawing from existing literature and using Iranian Muslim women as a case example, the study identifies ten key identity axes: gender, education, employment, nationality, religion, place, marital status, ethnicity, age, and race, discussing how these axes intersect to create compounded and context-specific barriers. The framework highlights unique constraints, such as the intersection of nationality and religion, which exposes women to Islamophobia and Iranophobia during international travel, and the intersection of gender and marital status, which reinforces patriarchal norms through legal restrictions. By offering a structured and context-specific approach, this research advances theoretical discussions on intersectionality in tourism and provides a foundation for future empirical studies to explore the diverse and nuanced experiences of Muslim female solo travelers.

References

Abedinifard M (2019) Persian ‘Rashti jokes’: Modern Iran’s palimpsests of gheyrat-based masculinity. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 46: 564–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2018.1447440

Alonso-Vazquez M, Yang ECL, Pages Vidal MM & Khoo C (2024) Going solo during the pandemic: A generational segmentation of solo female travellers. Current Issues in Tourism 27: 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2022.2164486

Atta S (2023) Iran witnessed increase in number of literate, educated women after Islamic Revolution. Tehran Times. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/486261/Iran-witnessed-increase-in-number-of-literate-educated-women

Bianchi RV, Stephenson ML (2014) Tourism and citizenship: Rights, freedoms and responsibilities in the global order. London.

Chambers D (2023) Are we all in this together? Gender intersectionality and sustainable tourism. Eger C, Munar AM, Hsu CHC (eds) Gender and tourism sustainability: 133–148. London.

Collins PH (2015) Intersectionality’s definitional dilemmas. Annual Review of Sociology 41: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112142

Crenshaw K (1991) Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review 43: 1241–1300.

Gao J, Kerstetter DL (2016) Using an intersectionality perspective to uncover older Chinese females’ perceived travel constraints and negotiation strategies. Tourism Management 57: 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.06.001

Garon N (2023) How Iranians are barred from the West through reactive visa policies fueled by politics. UNT Dallas L. Rev. On the Cusp 1. https://onthecusp.untdallas.edu/docs/2023/garon-article.pdf

Higgins Desbiolles F (2020) Diversity in tourism: A perspective article. Tourism Review 75: 29–32. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-06-2019-0226

Hosseini S, Macias RC, Garcia FA (2022) The exploration of Iranian solo female travellers’ experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research 24: 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2498

Iran Passport Dashboard (2023) Passport Index. https://www.passportindex.org/passport/iran/

Jabareen Y (2009) Building a conceptual framework: Philosophy, definitions, and procedure. International journal of qualitative methods 8: 49–62. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690900800406

Khaki GN, Gousia M (2015) Globalization and post-islamic revolution: A changing Iranian woman. Journal of Globalization Studies 6: 74–90.

Kharazmi ZN, Ghasempour F (2022) Motherhood movements in revolutionary Iran of the twenty-first century: The motherly network. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 23: 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2022.2026597

Khoo C, Thakur P, Yang MJH, Pung JM, Ting A (2025) Body hair and booty calls: Conceptualising ‘empowered-ness’ in travel and tourism for solo female vanlifers. Annals of Tourism Research 111: 103905. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2025.103905

Kong S, Zhu H (2021) Unpacking millennial Chinese women’s risk perceptions in outbound travel: An intersectional perspective. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 49: 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.10.007

Lutz H, Vivar MTH, Supik L (eds) (2016) Framing intersectionality: Debates on a multi-faceted concept in gender studies. London.

Mehdian H, Turkashvand J, Alinezhad M (2022) The geopolitical goals of the Zionist regime’s policy of Iranophobia. Defense Policy 31: 103–135. [In Persian]

Mirmohammadi SJ, Hafezi R, Mehrparvar AH, Gerdfaramarzi RS, Mostaghaci M, Nodoushan RJ, Rezaeian B (2013) An epidemiologic study on anthropometric dimensions of 7–11-year-old Iranian children: Considering ethnic differences. Ergonomics 56: 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2012.728250

Mirzai B (2002) African presence in Iran: identity and its reconstruction. Outre-Mers. Revue d’histoire 89: 229–246.

Moghadam VM (2023) Gender regimes, polities, and the world-system: Comparing Iran and Tunisia. Women’s Studies International Forum 98: 102721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2023.102721

Mohammadi N, Maghsoodi S, Hasanpoor M, Maskouni FH (2022) The interpretation of face veiled women in Balochistan region: A geo-cultural study. Quality & Quantity 56: 3957–3969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-021-01294-5

Mooney S (2018) Illuminating intersectionality for tourism researchers. Annals of Tourism Research 72: 175–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2018.03.003

Moufakkir O (2020) Experience of Arab/Muslim women visiting relatives in the West and the management of stigma by association. Tourism management 78: 104073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104073

Nematpour M, Oshriyeh O, Ghaffari M (2024) Behind the invisible walls: Understanding constraints on Muslim solo female travel. Tourism Management Perspectives 50: 101213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101213

Nguyen DTA, Hsu L (2022) Travel experience of Southeast Asian solo female travellers. Journal of Indonesian Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation 5: 127–144. https://doi.org/10.17509/jithor.v5i2

Nikjoo A, Markwell K, Nikbin M, Hernández-Lara AB (2021) The flag-bearers of change in a patriarchal Muslim society: Narratives of Iranian solo female travellers on Instagram. Tourism Management Perspectives 38: 100817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2021.100817

Nikjoo A, Seyfi S, Saarinen J (2025) Promoting gender inclusivity through community-based tourism. Annals of Tourism Research Empirical Insights 6: 100181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annale.2025.100181

Nisha F, Cheung C (2022) Locating Muslimah in the travel and tourism research. Tourism Management Perspectives 41: 100940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2022.100940

Nisha F, Cheung C, Tung VWS (2025) Intersectional marginalisation of female Muslim tourists. Tourism Management 108: 105099.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2024.105099

Poopale Ratthinan S, Selamat NH (2018) Being Muslim: Unveiling the voices of Asian Muslim women travellers. Gender Issues 35: 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-018-9215-3

Rezania S, Jafari Haftkhani N, Saffari M (2021) Iranian women’s leisure time dilemmas: From the experts’ perspective. The International Journal of Humanities 28: 13–25.

Rodó-Zárate M (2020) Gender, nation, and situated Intersectionality: The case of Catalan pro-independence feminism. Politics & Gender 16: 608–636. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X19000035

Rostami A, Trupp A, Stephenson ML (2024) Female solo travel experiences: An autoethnography on social and emotional challenges with tourism industry stakeholders. Advances in Southeast Asian Studies 17: 201–212. https://doi.org/10.14764/10.ASEAS-0112

Salehi A, Whitehead D, Sebar B, Upadhyay R, Coyne E, Harris N (2021) Young women living in Iran: Gendered drivers influencing social participation and wellbeing. Journal of Gender Studies 30: 478–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1868982

Seow D (2020) The role of gender, patriarchy and culture in the Asian female travel experience. PhD thesis. Bournemouth

Seyfi S, Hall CM (2019) Deciphering Islamic theocracy and tourism: Conceptualization, context, and complexities. The International Journal of Tourism Research 21: 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2300

Seyfi S, Hall CM, Vo-Thanh T (2022) The gendered effects of statecraft on women in tourism: Economic sanctions, women’s disempowerment and sustainability? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 30: 1736–1753.https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1850749

Shahryari A, Athari SH (2024) Feasibility of de dollarization in Iran’s economy based on membership in Shanghai Cooperation Organization. International Political Economy Studies 6: 579-605. [In Persian]

Shakiba S, Ghaderzadeh O, Moghadam VM (2021) Women in Iranian Kurdistan: Patriarchy and the quest for empowerment. Gender & Society 35: 616–642. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211029205

Statista (2025) Iran: Total fertility rate from 2003 to 2022. https://www.statista.com/statistics/294115/iran-fertility-rate/

Su C-P, Wu T-C (2022) The dark side of solo female travel: Negative encounters with male strangers. Berdychevsky L, Carr N (eds) Innovation and Impact of sex as leisure in research and practice:121–138. London.

Taheri E, Güven Lisaniler F, Payaslioğlu C (2021) Female labour force participation: What prevents sustainable development goals from being realised in Iran? Sustainability 13: 11918. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111918

Tavakoli R, Mura P (2017) Iranian women travelling: Exploring an unknown universe. Khoo-Lattimore C, Wilson E (eds) Women and travel: 109–124. Palm Bay.

Trading Economics (2025) Iran- Life expectancy at birth, female. https://tradingeconomics.com/iran/life-expectancy-at-birth-female-years-wb-data.html

United Nations Development Programme (2024) Gender Inequality Index (GII): Iran (Islamic Republic of). Human Development Reports. https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indices/GII

Wilson E, Little DE (2005) A “relative escape”? The impact of constraints on women who travel solo. Tourism Review International 9: 155–175. https://doi.org/10.3727/154427205774791672

World Bank (2025) Iran, Islamic Rep.: Gender data portal. https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/economies/iran-islamic-rep

Xin S, Tribe J, Chambers D (2013) Conceptual research in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 41: 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.12.003

Yang ECL (2021) What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of solo and non-solo travellers. Current Issues in Tourism 24: 2458–2471. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1839025

Yang ECL, Yang MJH, Khoo-Lattimore C (2019) The meanings of solo travel for Asian women. Tourism Review 74: 1047–1057. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-10-2018-0150

Zarezadeh ZZ, Rastegar R (2023) Gender-leisure nexus through a social justice lens: The voice of women from Iran. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 54: 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.02.003